Lack of parallel genetic patterns underlying the repeated ecological divergence of beach and stream-spawning kokanee salmon.

Recent progress in methods for detecting adaptive population divergence in situ shows promise for elucidating the conditions under which selection acts to generate intraspecific diversity. Rapid ecological diversification is common in fishes; however, the role of phenotypic plasticity and adaptation to local environments is poorly understood. It is now possible to investigate genetic patterns to make inferences regarding phenotypic traits under selection and possible mechanisms underlying ecotype divergence, particularly where similar novel phenotypes have arisen in multiple independent populations. Here, we employed a bottom-up approach to test for signatures of directional selection associated with divergence of beach- and stream-spawning kokanee, the obligate freshwater form of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). Beach- and stream-spawners co-exist in many post-glacial lakes and exhibit distinct reproductive behaviours, life-history traits and spawning habitat preferences. Replicate ecotype pairs across five lakes in British Columbia, Canada were genotyped at 57 expressed sequence tag-linked and anonymous microsatellite loci identified in a previous genome scan. Fifteen loci exhibited signatures of directional selection (high FST outliers), four of which were identified in multiple lakes. However, the lack of parallel genetic patterns across all lakes may be a result of: 1) an inability to detect loci truly under selection; 2) alternative genetic pathways underlying ecotype divergence in this system; and/or 3) phenotypic plasticity playing a formative role in driving kokanee spawning habitat differences. Gene annotations for detected outliers suggest pathogen resistance and energy metabolism as potential mechanisms contributing to the divergence of beach- and stream-spawning kokanee, but further study is required.